Cloning

Dara Petersen 9/25/09

Cloning, it’s not just something you see in movies anymore. Cloning is something that has become very real and a much debated topic in the last century. With new and remarkable discoveries science has made in this day and age, cloning is now a frequent topic that appears in both the news and politics. Researchers today have been able to clone many things such as, genes, cells, tissues, and even entire organisms. But what is cloning anyway? And why is cloning relevant to today’s society? Here are a few important facts that everyone should know about cloning to make an informed decision and build an educated opinion. Cloning, by definition, is the process that is used to create an exact genetic replica of another cell, tissue, or organism. When something is cloned, every single bit of DNA between the two is exactly the same. Cloning can also be broken down into three different categories: gene, reproductive, and therapeutic. The first, gene cloning, or DNA cloning, is the most widely used and accepted form of cloning, which simply involves researchers making copies of genes or segments of DNA they wish to study. Scientists and researchers transfer a DNA fragment of interest from an organism into the genetic material of a carrier, such as bacteria or yeast cells. The carrier is then placed into lab conditions that make it capable of multiplying and copying the gene. The second is reproductive cloning. Reproductive cloning is the type of cloning typically seen in the media. This form of cloning refers to the copy and cloning of animals. Scientists transfer genetic material from the nucleus of a donor adult cell to an ff whose genetic material has been removed. The most famous example of this was a cloned sheep named Dolly. After 276 attempts, scientists in Scotland were finally able to create a successful clone the sheep in 1996. Other animals such as mice, cows, chickens, cats and dogs have been cloned in the last 50 years. Through reproductive cloning, many researchers hope that cloning animals, they can provide science will models of certain diseases, or even to go as far as returning a family their dead pet. The ethical problem with reproductive cloning really comes into play when the cloning involves actual humans. Though no humans have ever been proven to have been cloned, there have been many claims in the past years. When the idea occurs that a genetically identical human can be created, many are turned away. Many people feel as though through this process, science is "playing God," and it begins to conflict with religious and social values. There are also many medical risks and adverse health effects such as a high failure rate and problems with actual development. Despite these beliefs, however, many scientists argue that reproductive cloning offers the possible opportunity to help sterile couples have children, or even prevent the passing of a harmful family gene. The third type of cloning is called therapeutic cloning. Therapeutic cloning involves the much debated subject of embryonic stem cells. Researchers want to use these stem cells to attempt to grow healthy tissue to replace possible injured or diseased tissues in the human body. They believe that by using these embryonic stem cells, they may be able to learn more about the molecular cause of diseases, such as Alzheimer’s, and potentially cure them. After five days, stem cells are extracted from an egg and are then used for research. However, by using these stem cells, it requires the destruction of human embryos, causing much debate about the practice. There are also major similarities between stem cells and cancer cells. Many studies have shown that after 60 cycles of cell division, stem cells can accumulate mutations that can lead to cancer. Cloning is seen as a very taboo topic, but it is an important issue that is being raised in the world around us. Therefore, it is important to stay informed and understand the facts that are behind issue, so that we can all build an informed opinion for ourselves.

Sources:

Cloning Fact Sheet (CFS) [Internet]. [updated 2009 May 11]. Human Genome Project Information; [cited 2009 Sep 23]. Available from: http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/cloning.shtml

Cloning [Internet]. [updated 2009 Sep 14]. Bethesda (MD): MedlinePlus; [cited 2009 Sep 24]. Available from: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/cloning.html

Learn.Genetics (LG) [Internet]. [updated 2008 Dec 12]. Salt Lake City (UT): Genetics Science Learning Center; [cited 2009 Sep 23]. Available from: http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/tech/cloning/

Cloning [Internet]. [updated 2009 March 12]. National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health; [cited 2009 Sep 24]. Available from: http://www.genome.gov/25020028


Alissa Owings 9/25/09

Obama, Global Warming, and Alternative Energies

In the recent 2008 Presidential Election, global warming and alternative energy sources were hotly contested issues. President Obama has outlined a strategy for what he hopes to do in order to combat global warming and work towards using alternative energies.

President Obama believes that unconventional energies need to be used to free our country from reliance on foreign oil. He plans to encourage support of domestic energy supplies by having oil companies drill on the offshore land they are not using. Obama also hopes to focus on the building of the Alaskan Natural Gas Pipeline, a resource that has the potential to store 4 billion feet of natural gas per day. A plan is also in effect to insist that by 2012, 10 percent of the United States’ electricity should be generated from renewable sources such as geothermal, solar, and wind energies.

When it comes to global warming, President Obama wants to work diligently towards climate change. He supports a “cap and trade” system which requires industries to pay for the carbon emissions that they are responsible for and puts the money towards research to improve the energy we use. In April, Obama revealed his National Low Carbon Fuel Standard plan, which requires transportation fuels to use percent less carbon by 2015 and 10 percent less by 2020. If this plan is successful, greenhouse emissions would be decreased by 180 tons by 2020 and we would lessen our amount of imported oil in the amount of 30 billion dollars.

Though it is still early on in Obama’s presidency, his strategy to prevent further global warming and to use alternative fuels is promising. Hopefully with support of the government and the American people, our country will be working towards climate change in the future years.

Sources Referenced: Barack Obama and Joe Biden: New Energy For America [Internet]. [updated September 2009]. Available from: http://www.barackobama.com/pdf/factsheet_energy_speech_080308.pdf. Alternative Energy [Internet]. [updated September 2009] Available from: http://www.barackobama.com/issues/newenergy/index.php. Barack Obama and Joe Biden: Promoting a Healthy Enviornment [Internet]. [updated September 2009]. Available from: http://www.barackobama.com/pdf/issues/EnvironmentFactSheet.pdf.Name

Da Hye Lee
9/24/09

Global Warming

The word “global warming” means as it sounds, the earth is warming up. The earth’s temperature started to increase 50 years ago, which is a huge problem for all of us. The major causes of global warming are due to the increase in the atmosphere of greenhouse gas and carbon dioxide (CO2). CO2 is created by burning all kinds of fuel like natural gas, diesel, oil, ethanol, and more.

Due to the global warming, the earth’s temperature is keep increasing and as well as the sea level. Scientists predicted that earth’s temperature can be increased up to 3° to 5° C (5.4° to 9° Fahrenheit) and the sea levels up to at least 25 meters (82 feet) by the year 2100. Change in temperature precipitation patterns cause increase in hurricanes, droughts, tornadoes, and other weather events, which we are already experiencing. Not only the weather is being affected by it, but also the carbon dioxide is thinning the ozone layer. The ozone layer has been covering the sunlight so that we could have the right amount, but the thinning of the ozone layer, we could get skin cancer from the strong sunlight and it can kill all the living things.

Some people believe that the global warming is happening and some do not. There is some prevention that can be done in our daily basis. First of all, we can start driving hybrid cars, take public transportation, and share cars if other people are going near your destination. Other way to reduce usage of carbon dioxide is to unplug the cords when they are not in use. Also, use less of hair spray and hair dryer.

Work cited:

Cause and Effect for Global Warming [Internet]. [updated 2007 Jan 14]. Time for Change; [cited 2009 Sept 24]. Available from: http://timeforchange.org/cause-and-effect-for-global-warming


Biogeochemical cyles

Megan Gallagher September 25th
Coelacanth: The Missing Link or just a really cool fish?



The coelacanth fish is a fish that is unique to the animal kingdom being that it is roughly 400 million years old. Also it is a strange animal, because it was thought to be extinct. The coelacanth was thought to have disappeared with the dinosaurs some 65 million years ago, but in fact was discovered in the year 1938 (Jerome F. Hamlin…[updates 2009])
The coelacanth fish was found in the waters of the Indian Ocean by a museum curator who was fishing one day. The curator sent a picture of the fish to a chemistry professor who identified it as the coelacanth fish. After that incident there was a time span of fourteen years in which no one saw the coelacanth fish again. The next one was found by a fisherman off the coast of Madagascar. This fisherman was not surprised to see the fish because he was reported saying that they caught those fish in their nets all the time.
The coelacanth fishes have ability to grow up to five feet long and can weigh up to 150 pounds. The females when fully-grown are actually larger than the males and can be any color from blue to brown. The coelacanth fish is usually identified by the peculiar flecks of white on their scales. Another physical feature that helps to identify these fish is their tri-lobed tail. (Essortment.com…)
The discovery of the coelacanth caused much excitement because it was thought to be a direct relative of the tetrapods (are four-limbed land animals). This is a believable theory because the coelacanth fish differs from every other bony fish because instead of having a rigid backbone they have a long tube of cartilage. Despite that the coelacanth fish is also carnivorous and has a very strong jaw and rows of very sharp and small teeth. And finally and most importantly the coelacanth has four muscular limb-esque extensions that theoretically helped the coelacanth to walk along the bottom of the ocean. (Scienceclarified.com…)

Works Cited
"Coelacanth - Anextinctdiscovery, Missing link between fish and mammals?, The modern coelacanth." Science Clarified. Web. 25 Sept. 2009. <http://www.scienceclarified.com/Ci-Co/Coelacanth.html>.

"Coelacanth: fish out of time." Essortment Articles: Free Online Articles on Health, Science, Education & More.. Web. 25 Sept. 2009. <http://www.essortment.com/all/coelacanthfish_regm.htm>.

"The Fish Out of Time." DINOFISH.com - COELACANTH: THE FISH OUT OF TIME. Ed. Jerome F. Hamlin. 18 Sept. 2009. Web. 25 Sept. 2009. <http://www.dinofish.com/>.

Daniel Mey
9/24/09

Dead Zones

Dead zones are areas in large bodies of water, which have been seriously depleted of oxygen. The reasons that they have been depleted vary. Sometimes these dead zones can be attributed natural causes, such as climate and wind changes. However, a human activity does play a very large role in the causes of dead zones.
Nitrogen is a main ingredient in chemical fertilizers, used by both farmers with large plots of land, as well as the average homeowner just trying to improve their front yard. The large amounts of nitrogen end up being deposited into freshwaters as runoffs. In turn these lakes, rivers, ponds ect. carry this nitrogen runoff into our oceans. As the nitrogen sits on top of the ocean, is creates large areas of algae bloom. These algae blooms use up a large portion of oxygen in the ocean, therefore depleting the amount that other organisms can receive in this ecosystem.
One of the biggest impacts of dead zones is the effect it has on marine life’s’ ability to reproduce. Research shows that in areas of dead zones, organisms’ key components to reproductive systems are considerably smaller than that of organisms living outside of the dead zone. Some dead zones can be so large that the marine life cannot escape, they do not receive enough oxygen, and eventually die.
There largest known dead zone is in the Gulf of Mexico, just south of the southern coastline of the United States. Many believe the Mississippi River to be a main contributor. The dead zone lies right at the mouth of it.
While it is still undetermined what can, if anything, can be done to reverse these dead zones, there are a few measure that can be taken in order to prevent further such problems from occurring. The first would be for everyone to do their part to reduce the amount fertilizer used. Secondly, the companies who produce these fertilizers could attempt to create fertilizers that have a limited amount of nitrogen. And of course water waste management and recycling would help this cause amongst many others.


"How are Dead Zones Created in Sea?." Bright Hub. 31 May 2009 . Web. 24 Sep 2009. <http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/marine/articles/37395.aspx>.

Silverman, Jacob, . "Should we be worried about the dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico? ." How Stuff Works. Web. 25 Sep 2009. <http://science.howstuffworks.com/dead-zone1.htm>.

Krogh, David, . A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. Print.

Dong Sung Kim 9/24/09
Global Warming There are many causes and effect of the global warming. The global warming is caused by greenhouse effect, pollution from factories, carbon dioxide emission from vehicles, and fossil fuels. Because of all these causes which effects climate changes. All these causes lead to disaster and contribute to the global warming. Some people including scientists believe that global warming is happening without natural climate changes and some people believe that this is not an issue.
Climate change is not natural occurring in our world, it is happening because of global warming. The icebergs from Greenland and Antarctica are melting everyday and it increases the sea level. According to the Planetsave, especially East coast of America is affected by melting of icebergs. Polar bears in Antarctica are dying and eating each other because of the melting icebergs. Because of Increase in sea level people has to move to other places. Tsunami is one example of increase in sea level. Also, climate change affects deadly storms and tornados. According to the scientist, number of hurricanes and deadly storms will be increased very soon. Climate changes also have affect on animals and caused extinction. So many animals are getting extinct every day. Food production is also affected by the global warming. Crop planting is affected by the global warming it is because of the temperature increasing. Ocean plants such as coral reef can be affected by the increase in temperature.
To prevent all these causes and effects people must change their behaviors and habits. We the people must reduce use of hair dryer, unplugging unnecessary items, burning less fossil fuel, and using more public transportation. Not dumping chemical waste into the ocean and rivers can reduce the pollutions and killing mass number of fishes. Also, recycling can prevent global warming. Recycled items can be reused without the burning. If we burn less carbon dioxide into the air, then we can breathe fresh and healthy air. With all these causes and effects we can explain how the global warming is a worldwide issue. People must change their habits and help to have a healthy planet.

Works Cited
“Global Warming Effects and Causes: A Top 10 List”[Internet].[updated 2009 June 7]. Planetsave; [cited 2009 sept 24]. Available from: http://planetsave.com/blog/2009/06/07/global-warming-effects-and-causes-a-top-10-list/
Sha'kara Chambers
GLOBAL WARMING: You walk in a room, turn the light on. A few minutes later you leave but do not turn the light back off. You complete your homework and begin to watch television. You’re no longer using your laptop but it remains on. These small actions are contributors to global warming. Global warming is “an increase in the average temperature of the earth's atmosphere (especially a sustained increase that causes climatic changes)”< wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn>. Many may think this will not affect humans, but just as our bodies must maintain homeostasis, the world must maintain habitability. One affect that can be seen now is climate change. Many regions of the world that contain glaciers and polar ice caps have begun to melt. Snow in southern regions has even decreased over the years. As time passes more distress will occur such as; extreme weather conditions, extinction, and the creation of more dry regions. Humans have been major contributors to the downfall of the ozone layer, “A region of the stratosphere, between 15 and 30 kilometers in altitude, containing a relatively high concentration of ozone; it absorbs most solar ultraviolet radiation”.< http://www.allwords.com/word-ozone%20layer.html >There are simple steps that could be taken to decrease the depletion of the ozone layer. Condition yourself, not your air: Instead of blasting your air conditioner, open a window. Listen to Jimmy: Jimmy Carter suggested people maybe put on a sweater to reduce the use of heating agents. You may not know them, but you know their team: Instead of being in different rooms watching the same game, watch the game on one television set. It’s only $0.99: Instead of constantly buying bottled water, get a reusable water bottle. To school, carpool: If you along with others share a destination, take turns driving to save on gas.





Mitosis and Cytokinesis

Mitosis and cytokinesis are in the mitotic phase of the cell cycle. These phases are when the cell splits, mitosis, and divides, cytokinesis. Before mitosis can begin the cell is in a state of interphase where the cells carry out their work and duplicate chromosomes in preparation for division. The next phase of the cell cycle is the mitotic phase where the cells begin mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis is the phases in the cell cycle where the cell separates, and is comprised of four main steps. The first step of mitosis is Prophase where the cell’s DNA becomes packed into clearly defined chromosomes. When chromosomes can be seen by a microscope it is known that mitosis has started. Also in prophase the nuclear envelope surrounding the nucleus begins to break down. During prophase microtubules outside the nucleus stretch the cell and move the chromosomes around and the two centrosomes inside the cell start to move apart to cell’s poles. Then the chromosomes align and then separate along the cellular equator which is known as the metaphase plate. Now that the centrosomes are moving apart they begin to sprout microtubules that attach to the chromosomes; the microtubules in cell division are known as the mitotic spindle. The next phase is Metaphase, during Metaphase the nuclear envelope around the nucleus has completely vanished, and the microtubules have now attached to the chromosomes. The microtubules move the chromosomes back and forth until they are aligned at the equator; now each chromatid is facing the pole opposite its sister and is attached to its pole by about 30 microtubules. The next phase is Anaphase this is where the genetic material separates and the sister chromatids are pulled apart and become their own chromosome and is pulled to its pole by the shortening microtubules. Telophase is the next phase where the newly formed regions that are still connected begin to return to a state where they represent a cell before mitosis. The new chromosomes have arrived at their pole and now begin to unwind and lose their defined shape and the regions begin to form a nuclear membrane; when this is done there will be two nuclei on the elongated cell. The next step is Cytokinesis which actually began to occur during Anaphase and is far along by Telophase. It is cause by a constriction that forms a ring that tightens through out Anaphase and is cause by two sets of protein filaments that contract together. By Telophase a noticeable indentation has formed called a cleavage furrow; the contraction forces the mitotic spindle closer together forming on thick pole that joins the two parts eventually making an hour glass shape. The membrane on each half begins to circle to each other and fuse once this has occurred the two cells have become separate. Now the two new sister cells begin interphase again.

Krogh, David. 2007. A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology. Upper Saddle River (NJ): Pearson Education, Inc p. 145-150

Cytokinesis [Internet]. [Updated 2008 August 18]. Biology Online; [Cited 2009 September 24]. Available from: http://library.osu.edu/sites/guides/csegd.php#booksone

Photo: www.maph49.galeon.com/mitosis/stages1.gif

According to a theory that most scientists base their studies and research off of, our planet initially consisted of a much larger and vast amount of water which is where most organisms began to form; what many researchers have recently been trying to figure out is how the organisms which formed in water were able to become land animals while others were not. Scientists have known for quite some time that the first four legged creature to walk onto land had evolved from a “lobed fin” fish, but until the discovery of this specific fossil it was unknown how or why the fins were able to evolve into something capable of propping an animal up and allowing it to walk. A recent discovery along a highway in Pennsylvania found the missing piece to the puzzle of the evolution process; a 365 million year old fossil of a humerus bone that shared characteristics with both fins and the limbs of amphibians. The fossil was the first fossil to show a large amount of space for muscle attachment going across the chest, and the use of this muscle would allow prehistoric fish to prop themselves up in something similar to the form of a push-up. The discovery of this specific type of humerus bone found in an area that was once a stream during the Devonian period proves that the humerus was a significant part in allowing water animals to crawl onto land and adapt. Because the streams were shallow and consisted of rocks and other terrestrial materials, the organisms had to adapt in order to move around thus leading to the strengthening of their forelimbs. Prehistoric fish that did not have this specific type of bone yet similar muscles continued to live in and evolve in the aquatic ecosystem. Ancient Fish. ScienceDaily. September 24, 2009. <http://www.sciencedaily.com­ /releases/2004/04/040402070804.htm> Gianaro, Catherine. Oldest-known arm bone found explains animal evolution from water to land. University of Chicago Chronicle. April 15, 2004. <http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/040415/armbone.shtml> Roach, John. Fins to Limbs: New Fossil Gives Evolution Insight. National Geographic News. April 1, 2004. <http://www.howcomyoucom.com/selfnews/viewnews.cgi?newsid1080860014,99571,.shtml>
-Nora Hermes


Exponential Growth v If a population has a constant birth rate through time and is never limited by food or disease. v With the idea of exponential growth the birth rated alone controls how fast (or slow) the population grows v Exponential growth also a major part in the human population. If the exponential growth if off then the population will decrease or increase. v Click here to view a video about exponential growth and how it affects the economy. v If the economy is down then the food and resources will be limited and exponential growth will effect the birth rate as well as the death rate. v ß In this graph it shows how population and generation effects exponential growth. Human Population Control v Human population consist of two key elements - Rate of Natural Increase - Demographic Transition v Rated of Natural Increase - The formula is: Birth rate (b) – death rate (d) = rate of natural increase (r) - The rates of both birth and death have a major role in the natural increase. - But in the past years the human population have been effected more on death rates then birth rates. v Demographic Transition - This is considered the over all status of the human population around the world. - If a country declines in births or deaths then that can effect the whole world - The reason is that if a county birth rate sky rockets then they will need more resources than they already use which will mess up the economic blance.
Sexual Reproduction -Anthony Brazeau Sept.24 Sexual reproduction is the forming of a new life or individual with the synethesis of two gametes. In order for a reproduction to take place you need a sperm(male), and an egg(female). The male has two functions it has to complete for the process of breeding life. The two major functions are first the man has to produce the sperm in the testes which is called spermatogenesis and that takes place in the seminiferous tubules. The second and equally important function the male must complete is the successful delivery of the sperm to the female reproductive tract. The females duty in the business of reproduction is a little more complex and important than the males. The first thing the female has to do is manufacture the eggs, and also be equipped to receive the sperm. Her body needs to provide an enviroment for the fertilization. Also needs to well nurish the baby inside of the female. To begin the the whole act, the male must ejaculate his sperm into the females vagina. The sperm then crosses the barrier of the cervix, then travels up the lining of the uterus and into the fallopian tubes. When in the right fallopian tube containing the egg, the sperm surround the egg and begin to break down the wall to get inside of it. Once a single sperm has entered into the egg, the egg gives off a different electrical signal pushing all the other sperm away to die within 48 hours. The nucleus of the sperm and the pronucleus of the egg merge and begin cell division. After a few days the zygote gains many cells and floats around until it finally implants itself to the uterine wall and then signals that a pregnancy has started. After about 9 months of development a child is born. Works cited :Freudenrich, Ph.D., Craig. "How Sex Works." 16 April 2001. HowStuffWorks.com. <http://health.howstuffworks.com/human-reproduction.htm> 24 September 2009. John W. Kimball, . "Sexual Reproduction." http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/W/Welcome.html. 14 09 2009. John W. Kimball, Web. 24 Sep 2009. <http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/W/Welcome.html>.
Diffusion and Osmosis Diffusion is the movement of a substance, molecules or ions, from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. This movement is occurring because the molecules or ions are always in state of random motion. The random state of motion of the molecules or ions is measured in temperature. Only when the temperature is at absolute zero, -273 degrees Celsius, will there be no movement. Osmosis is the net movement of water from a region of lower solute concentration across a semipermeable membrane to a region of higher concentration. In osmosis there are three possible movements in which water can flow. The three movements depend on the solute concentration outside the cell in comparison to inside the cell. When the solute concentration outside the cell is equal to the solute concentration inside the cell, cytoplasm, there will be a balanced flow of water between the cells surroundings and the cell. This equal balance between the solutions is known as an isotonic solution. When the solute concentration outside the cell is greater than the solute concentration inside the cell, there will be a flow of water out of the cell. In this case the solution with the higher solute concentration than the one inside the cell is known as a hypertonic solution. When a solute concentration outside the cell is lower than the solute concentration inside the cell, there will be a flow of water into the cell. In this case the solution outside the cell with a lower solute concentration than the one inside the cell is known as a hypotonic solution. Krogh, David. 2007. A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology. Upper Saddle River (NJ): Personal Education, Inc. p 84-87. Diffusion and Osmosis [Internet]. [Cited 9/20/09] Available at: http://www. Hyperphics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/kinetic/diffuse.html Diffusion [Internet]. [Cited 9/23/09] Available at: http://www.biologycorner.com/bio1diffusion.html
.html Instructor: Carmen Rodriguez Hernandez 2009 wraps up the International Year of Planet Earth. Understanding Biology is essential to understanding how humans affect Earth and how we and future generations can prosper. This wiki, created by the Students of Section 006 Biological Concepts (BIOL101) Fall 2009, outlines biological knowledge that is essential for making informed choices about our health, politics, purchasing, and all the things that we do that in turn affect Planet Earth. YOUR COFFEE AND THE ENVIRONMENT. (Ashley Wright) Your morning cup of coffee can have a vast effect on the environment and its biodiversity. The coffee plant has traditionally been grown under the lush canopy of the tropical rainforest. This technique is referred to as “shade grown.” Coffee grown in these conditions requires fewer fertilizers and pesticides, promotes biodiversity - especially in birds, and can help stabilize our fight against global warming. However, because coffee grown in the shade takes longer to ripen, many coffee plantations have turned to growing coffee in the sun to produce larger quantities in a smaller amount of time. More than forty percent of the shaded coffee fields in Mexico and Central America have been converted to sun-exposed plantations. The burning and clearing of forests in tropical regions produces two times the amount of greenhouse gases responsible for global warming than the entire planet’s cars, trucks, SUVs, and trains do. Also, healthy forests and plants thrive on and require carbon from the atmosphere. Through carbon extracting from the air and the process of photosynthesis, plants and forests help balance out carbon emissions which moderates climate change. Buying shade grown coffee can help preserve 2.3 square feet of rainforest per cup. The lack of shade grown coffee also has a profound effect on migratory birds. During the winter months, many birds travel down to the rainforest to dwell in warmer weather. The habitat of shade grown coffee supports roughly 150 different species of birds. Non-shaded areas can only support between twenty and fifty species. So in other words, buying shade grown coffee is better for you and for the environment. It contains fewer toxins, and doesn’t harm the environment the way sun exposed crops do. Fortier, Amanda. “Understanding Shade Grown Coffee.” . Cookingresources.suite101.com . 13 Feb, 2009. Web. 23 Sept 2009. “What is Shade Grown Coffee?”. Coffee Habitat. Coffee and Conservation. 6 Feb, 2006. Web. 23 Sept. 2009 Ingebretsen, Mark. “What is Shade Grown Coffee?”. Conservation.org. Conservation International. 19 March 2008. web. 23 Sept 2009 “How Much Rainforest fits into a Cup of Coffee?” The Daily Green. Arbor Day Foundation. 23 Jul 2009. Web. 23 Sept. 2009. “Why Shade Grown Coffee Matters to Birds.”. Wild Birds Unlimited. The Zen Bird Feeder. 17 Mar 2009. Web. 23 Sept 2009. “Why Migratory Birds are Crazy for Coffee.” Nationalzoo.si.edu. The Smithsonian Institute. Web. 23 Sept 2009 1. Evolution: All forms of life, including humans, are continually changing. History of Life on Earth

• Even though Microbes cannot be seen with the naked eye, they are all around us. Microbes have been around longer then humans or any other form of life. All Microbes are single celled organisms.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

The Importance of Microbes in Soil: Bigger is not always better when it comes to microbes. Microbes are so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. They are single-celled organisms that are essential to life. These tiny little creatures are everywhere around us. They live in bodies of water, on our skin, and in the soil. Without these microbes, plants could not collect their needed nutrients from the soil. For example, Humans create carbon dioxide and the plants can convert it back oxygen. Microbes do the same thing. They take sugars and amino acids from the roots of plants and convert to useful substance that the plant can use. Microbes also recycle other elements such as nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, and phosphorus. They are like mini-soil regulators that make sure the plants keep getting their nutrients. Microbes breakdowns organic material and puts it back into the soil for plants to use. Some examples of organic material that the microbes “eat” are dead leaves, manure, and wood. When they breakdown these materials, they leave humus. Humus is dark organic soil. This soil is full of nutrients for plants and the soft soil helps plant roots easier to grow. Atoms are the building blocks of life. Microbes are one tiny step in the building blocks, but if it was remove, life could not exist. Microbes help plants live and grow. A: The size of the mouse to the elephant is how big a microbe is compared to rest of the world. B: An example of what the microbes look like that are in our soil. Citation: Krogh, David. A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, 2007. Van d’Rhys, Darius. “The Importance of Microbes in Soil.” Dave’s Garden. 2008. 24 September 2009 <http://davesgarden.com/guides/articles/view/1936/> Zuberer, David A. “Soil Microbiology FAQ’s.” 24 September 2009 <http://organiclifestyles.tamu.edu/soil/microbeindex.html> Pictures: A: http://other-things-amanzi.blogspot.com/2008_05_01_archive.html B: http://bexar-tx.tamu.edu/HomeHort/F1Column/2005%20Articles/NOV6.htm

• The Eukaryotic Cell- Eukaryotic cells exhibit many of the characteristics of living things including reproduction and production of energy. Eukaryotic cells include five larger structures: the nucleus, other organelles, cytosol, the cytoskeleton, and the plasma membrane. These structures all contain smaller structures inside of them. The nucleus is a compartment within the cell that contains the cell’s DNA. It is surrounded by a double membrane known as the nuclear envelope, and it is known as the control center for of the cell. The other organelles in the cell include the mitochondria, the smooth and the rough endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi complex, ribosomes, and lysozomes. Each of these organelles plays an important part in the many functions of the cell. The cytosol is the jelly-like fluid that surrounds the cell’s other organelles. The cytoskeleton is the cell’s skeleton, and it is made up of three types of protein fibers: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. The cytoskeleton plays a structural role in the cell, and it also facilitates the movement of the organelles within the cell as well as movement of the cell itself. The plasma membrane is simply the outer lining of the cell. Almost all of the individual organelles and structures within the cell have their own membranes as well.
  
  
  

Krough D. 2007. A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology. Upper Saddle River (NJ): Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 58-71 Picture: http://www.uvm.edu/~inquiryb/webquest/fa06/mvogenbe/Animal-Cell.jpg By Sarah Beckman

• The Plant Cell Structure-Plants have an enclosed nuclei and organelles so they can produce their own food. The green color, chlorophyll, gives plants the ability to use sunlight. They use the sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars and carbohydrates. The plant cells have variety of other specialized structures which includes: rigid cell wall, central vacuole, plasmodesmata, plasma membrane, nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, microtubules, and chloroplasts. Plant cells have rigid cell wall to protect the cell and regulate the life cycle. The central vacuole maintains the cell’s turgor, controls the movement of molecules, and digests waste. The plasmodesmata connect plant cells to each other to provide living bridges between cells. Plant cells have a plasma membrane to regulate the passage of molecules in and out of the cells. The nucleus is the main specialized structure because it stores the cell’s hereditary material and it coordinates the cell’s activities. The mitochondria break down carbohydrate and sugar molecules to provide energy when light isn’t visible. Plant cells have microtubules carry out a variety of functions from transport to structural support. The endoplasmic reticulum manufactures, processes, and transports chemical compounds inside and outside of plant cell. Plant cells have the ability to photosynthesize which means they can make their own food by converting light energy into chemical energy. Plants require a large quantity of water for photosynthesize to maintain cell structure and growth to bring nutrients to the plant cells. The process that is carried out is called chloroplasts. Plants are very essential to people and animals.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

Davidson, Michael W. and Florida State University. “Plant Cell Structure.” Cell Biology and Microscopy Structure and Function of Cells and Viruses. Molecular Expressions. 14 May 2005. Web. 10 September 2009. Available from: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/plantcell.html Wikipedia contributors. Plant Cell. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; [cited 2009 Sept 8]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plant_cell&oldid=312657428 Mork, Rachael. "What Are the Parts of a Plant Cell?" Life 123. Mindspark. 2008-2009. Web. 21 September 2009. Available from: http://www.life123.com/parenting/education/botany/parts-of-a-plant-cell.shtml#STS=fzvbnkkb.xgz

• Prokaryotes are organisms that have only one-cell (prokaryotic). These organisms are not complex and are generally bacteria or viruses. The most unusual thing about these creatures is that their one cell doesn’t contain a nucleus, despite having all the other organelles that typical animal cells have. Instead they have a nucleoid region within their single cell that carries a double strand of DNA that is used for reproduction. Prokaryotes also have a flagellum attached to the end of its cell membrane that allows them to move about freely. Unlike eukaryotes, prokaryotes reproduce asexually. That means prokaryotes make exact copies of themselves while eukaryotes make offspring that share traits of father and the mother. They also do not eat necessarily but instead use diffusion in order to spread nutrients throughout. Probably the most interesting thing about prokaryotes though is their ability to survive in almost any environment. This is due to the fact they do not necessarily need oxygen to survive but instead use a wide variety of metabolic functions.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

Works Cited "Prokaryotes, Eukaryotes, & Viruses Tutorial." The Biology Project-Cell Biology. 23 Aug. 1996. Web. 21 Sept. 2009. <http://www.biology.arizona.edu/Cell_BIO/tutorials/pev/page2.html>. "Prokaryotes." Prokaryotes. Josh Bond. Web. 21 Sept. 2009. <http://facstaff.gpc.edu/~pgore/students/w96/joshbond/prok.htm>. "Prokaryotic Cells." Cellupedia. Web. 21 Sept. 2009. <http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/prokaryotic_cells.html>. The purpose of the digestive system is for the body to take the food that you eat and turn it into something useful for the body. In addition, it is used to dispose of waste products that the body cannot use for any purposes. The digestive tract in the name of the pathway in which food travels and is taken by different parts of the body for different uses. It begins at the mouth and ends at the anus. The different organs in between include the salivary glands, the gallbladder, the liver, and the pancreas. These organs all act on the food as it travels the digestive tract in order to gain materials that the body needs to stay healthy.After you chew your food, it is pushed into the pharynx, or upper throat, and the esophagus, where muscles push it down to the stomach. The stomach is the part of the digestive tract where most of the breaking down of food takes place. It has a very low pH, meaning that it is very acidic, so its juices can chemically break down food. Next up on the tract is the small intestine. This is where most of (80%) the nutrients from the food we eat is removed from the tract and absorbed into the body so it can be used for the benefit of the body There are organs in the small intestine that aid in the digestion of food. The purpose of the pancreas is to raise pH to make the food mixture less acidic. It helps to break apart lipids, proteins and carbohydrates. The gallbladder’s purpose is to store bile, which is made by the liver. Bile is what helps to digest fats. The main purpose of the large intestine is to store and ultimately dispose of waste. It has three sections: the cecum, the colon, and the rectum. Waste is eventually disposed of through the anus (Krogh 524-530). Sources Picture:http://www.crossfitoakland.com/old_site/DigestiveSystem2.gif *Protozoa (also known as Acrita), the smallest animal in the world, are single-celled organisms. Even though they only have one cell they are considered eukaryotes, because they have a nuclei. Protozoa are grouped into the kingdom Protista and recently in the kingdom Protozoa. Most protozoa cannot be seen with the naked eye because they are as small as 0.01mm, however they can be found under a microscope. Protozoa are much like multicellular organisms, they can breathe, reproduce, and even move. Most Protozoa live in or near water and some examples of these animals are paramecium, ameba, and euglena or plant algae and fungus water molds. There are 30,000 different types of Protozoas and more are being discovered today. Protozoa move around with their flagella, which is much like a tail and can often cause deadly diseases such as amoebic dysentery or even malaria. However, protozoas can do good by eating some diseases and use vacuoles to digest the disease or food they have eaten. Some animals even relay on protozoa for food. Protozoa are dangerous to our world, but at the same time they are needed for living organisms to survive. Protozo A [Internet]; [cited 2009 Sept 22]. Available from: http://www.mcwdn.org/Animals/PROTOZOA.html ScienceDaily [Internet]. [updated 2009 Sept 22]. Rockville (MD): [cited 2009 Sept 22]. Available from: http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/p/protozoa.htm Wikipedia contributors. Protozoa. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; [cited 2009 Sept 22]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protozoa Krogh, David. 2007. A Brief Guide to Biology With Physiology. Upper Saddle River (NJ): Pearson Education, Inc. p 524-530. . Osmosis in Cells Osmosis in cells is the flow of water in and out of the cell. There are three ways to compare the solution that is inside the cell and the solution that is outside the cell: isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic. The following paragraph will explain these ways in terms of a solution outside the cell versus the solution inside the cell. First, we must have a basic understanding of a solution. There are two parts that make up a solution: the solvent and the solute. The solvent is the agent that is in charge of dissolving a substance. A solute is the substance that is being dissolved into the solvent. A solution with a higher concentration has more solute dissolved in it than a solution with a lower concentration. Osmosis in cells occurs because the solution inside and outside the cell wants to have the same amount of concentration. These definitions are important to know in order to understand osmosis in cells. In an isotonic solution, the cell has the same concentration of a solute inside the cell as the solution that is outside the cell. The result is that the solution flows into and out of the cell through the plasma membrane freely. A hypertonic solution occurs when a cell has less solute than the surrounding solution. When a cell is hypertonic, the water inside the cell rushes out if the cell to create a balance. Upon the water rushing out of the cell, the cell shrivels up and shrinks due to the loss of water. A hypotonic solution has more solute inside the cell than the solution outside the cell. When this occurs, the water outside the cell rushes into the cell because the solutions want to be balanced. This rushing causes the cell to swell and sometimes it causes the cell to rupture. Overview: When the solution and cell have to same concentration of solute the solutions are isotonic. When a solution outside the cell has more solute than the solution inside the cell the solutions are hypertonic. When a solution outside the cell has less solute than inside the cell the solutions are hypotonic. Real life application: Hypertonic application: When stranded on an island with no clean water a person might be tempted to drink the salt water. This salt water has a much higher concentration of solute than the water that supports normal (isotonic) cell life. Drinking the salt water would cause the solution surrounding the body’s cells to have more solute (salt) than inside the cell. The water within the cell will rush out in an effort to create and isotonic environment, causing the cells to shrivel up, and the person will die. Hypotonic application: When someone drinks an excess of water (much more than anyone should drink) the solution outside the cell has less solute than inside the cell. The overwhelming amount of water rushes inside the cell to create a balance and causes the cells to rupture and the person will die. From these examples we can see that this balance of solutions inside and outside the cell is very important to life. Sources: Wolters Kluwer. 2008. Fluids and Electrolytes Made Incredibly Easy! 4th ed. P.6-7. Krogh, David. 2007. A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology. Upper Saddle River (NJ). Person Education, Inc. p. 86-87. Elsevier [internet]. Dorland’s Medical Dictionary. © 2007. Available from http://www.merckmedicus.com/pp/us/hcp/thcp_dorlands_content_split.jsp?pg=/ppdocs/us/common/dorlands/drlnd/four_07/000051354.htm Elsevier [internet]. Dorland’s Medical Dictionary. © 2007. Available from http://www.merckmedicus.com/pp/us/hcp/thcp_dorlands_content_split.jsp?pg=/ppdocs/us/common/dorlands/drlnd/four_08/000051912.htm Elsevier [internet]. Dorland’s Medical Dictionary. © 2007. Available from http://www.merckmedicus.com/pp/us/hcp/thcp_dorlands_content_split.jsp?pg=/ppdocs/us/common/dorlands/drlnd/four_11/000055262.htm Author for Osmosis in cells: Eugena Curtis

• Future for Life on Earth
  
  
  
  Cloning- Samantha Kay
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

Cloning is a controversial topic that coalesce ethics and science into one dilemma. Many arguments over social, ethical, and moral reasons have been raised. Not all cloning is reproductive based, although that’s usually what the dispute is over in the media. However in therapeutic cloning stem cell research arguments and cloning issues both come into play. Therapeutic Cloning is a type of cloning that may someday be used to generate organs in humans and replace damaged cells. This cloning process takes stem cells are harvested and used to treat diseases, injuries, or disorders. The first case of successful therapeutic cloning happened in 2001. Another, more popular type of cloning is Artificial Embryo Twinning. This is a type of cloning that replicates the general process of creating identical twins. This technique in creating clones is relatively simple and one of the first reproductive cloning methods to be tested. The first step of the process takes a naturally occurring fertilized egg and putting it into a Petri dish. It is then manually split in half and the split zygote continues dividing, exactly how a pair of identical twins would in their mother’s womb. Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer is also another type of reproductive cloning. DNA Cloning is a less common type of cloning; and it’s also referred to as Gene cloning. It is when genes of DNA are replicated in another host cell. To create multiple copies of the same gene, bacterial plasmid is normally used. This type of cloning can benefit in gene therapy by replicating certain medical conditions and trying to find variables that reduce the effects of the condition. Positive aspects of cloning include many life saving abilities, like creating vital organs. It can also be a benefit by treating infertility and by helping genetic research. The main negative problems in cloning spawn from its moral issues. Should man have the power to create life out of a dish? Many people believe that if humans had this power it would be an ethical disaster. Others believe it would benefit the world like no other discovery. Work Cited
Genetic Science Learning Center. What is cloning? University of Utah, Genetic Science Learning [Internet]. Available from:http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/tech/cloning/whatiscloning/. [cited 2009 Sept 24.]

[AMA] American Medical Association. Human Cloning. Stem Cell Research. Available from:http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/physician-resources/medical-science/genetics-molecular-medicine/related-policy-topics/stem-cell-research/human-cloning.shtml .[cited 2009 Sept 24.]

Buzzle.com, Intellegent Life on the Web.Pros and Cons of Cloning. Available from:http://www.buzzle.com/articles/pros-and-cons-of-cloning.html . [cited 2009 Sept. 24]

• One of the effects of the rise in sea level is “coral bleaching.” When coral is faced with certain stresses like sea level rising, the microscopic algae that is responsible for coral’s color dies. This leaves the coral looking white and not as beautifully diverse and colorful.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

• If sea level rises just 40 inches one of the world’s poorest countries, Bangladesh, is estimated to lose 17.5% of its land. Not only will tens of thousands of people be displaced, but the flooding would ruin the countries agricultural system. People, animals, plants, and fresh water supplies are in danger as this threat continues to increase.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
• There are many islands in danger of losing 80% of its land if the sea level were to raise 20 inches. Many islands will even disappear. Decrease in tourism, destruction of agriculture and coastal ecosystems, and danger of storm surges are all predicted effects of the rise in sea level. The islands are protected by coral reefs which will become submerged if the sea level raises leading to the above effects.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

• Cities may begin to include foundations that ensure supplies for fresh water, provide transportation, and protect its inhabitants from flooding and storm surge.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
• Sea walls could be built to shield buildings and roads from the rising sea level. They not only prevent water from coming inland, but they provide a buffer during storm surges.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

• Global Warming Facts & Our Future [Internet]. [updated 2009]. Washington (DC): Marian Koshland Science Museum; [cited 2009 September 23]. Available from: http://www.koshland-science-museum.org/exhibitgcc/impacts04.jsp
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
• Vulnerability of Southern African Coastline [Internet]. [updated 2009 April 30]. Dickinson College; [cited 2009 September 23]. Available from: http://sites.google.com/site/vulnerabilityadaptation/elyce
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

Cheyenne Snipes {altmansnipcn}
Triploid Oysters!

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Works Cited: Don, Bishop. "Triploid Oysters." Fukui North America. 2004. Web. 22 Sept. 2009. http://www.fukuina.com/articles/mar_apr01.htm. "Triploid Oysters." Hilton's Coast Seafoods Company. Web. 22 Sept. 2009. http://www.coastseafoods.com/bivalvess.htm. Suman Soni 9/22/09 Cloning Cloning is the biological process of creating genetically equal individuals. In biotechnology, it is the process of creating identical copies of DNA fragments. There are a few different types of cloning; Recombinant DNA Technology or DNA cloning, reproductive cloning, and therapeutic cloning. DNA cloning is when a fragment of DNA is transferred from one organism to another element. It can then be spread in the host cell. You have to isolate the DNA fragment with the use of restriction enzymes in order for the cloning process to occur. For reproductive cloning, you transfer DNA from the nucleus of an adult cell to an egg without a nucleus. After a certain amount of time, the cloned egg is transferred to the uterus of a female. This kind of cloning is used to make an animal that has the same nuclear DNA as another one already surviving. Therapeutic cloning is the construction of embryos. This is used to gather stem cells, mainly to treat disease. These stem cells are taken from the egg at its blastocyst stage. When the zygote divides, the two cells separate. Each cell continues to divide until it forms a separate individual inside of the mother. Because both of these cells are from the same zygote, the result is genetically identical individuals. Comparatively, artificial embryo twinning happens in a Petri dish rather than in the mother. It is now possible to manually split apart the zygote into two cells which allows them to develop into other cells on their own. Another approach would be Somatic cell nuclear transfer. Somatic cells are cells in the body that are not reproductive cells. (Sperm cells and egg cells) These reproductive cells only have one set of chromosomes while the others have two sets. Dolly is an example of somatic cell nuclear transfer. Scientists separated a somatic cell from Dolly and relocated the nucleus of that cell to an egg cell without a nucleus. The fertilized zygote was developed into an embryo and put in a replacement mother. Why is cloning good? Two main reasons as to why cloning can be beneficial would be curing infertility and saving endangered species. Sources "Cloning Fact Sheet." [Internet]. [Updated May 11, 2009]. Available from: http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/cloning.shtml#whatis "What is Cloning?" [Internet]. [Updated Dec 12, 2008] Available from: http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/tech/cloning/whatiscloning/ Smith,Simon. "All the reasons to clone human beings." [Internet]. [Updated Sept 22, 2009]. Available from: http://www.humancloning.org/allthe.php gravelybm (Brandon Gravely) Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is a process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, using the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis occurs within plants, algae, and many species of Bacteria. The process of photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts, specifically using chlorophyll. Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they create their own food. In plants, photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. There are two parts to photosynthesis: The Light Reaction and the Dark Reaction. The light reaction occurs in the thylakoid membrane and converts light energy into chemical energy. The energy harvested by the light reaction is stored by forming a chemical called ATP (adenosine triphosphate), a compound used by cells for energy storage. The dark reaction occurs in the stroma within the chloroplast, and converts carbon dioxide to sugar. Sources

• Campbell, Neil A., Lawrence G. Mitchell, Jane B. Reece. 1999. Biology, 5th Ed. Benjamin/Cummings Publ. Co., Inc. Menlo Park, CA. (plus earlier editions)
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
• [Photo] http://grapevine.net.au/~grunwald/une/KLAs/science/photosynthesis.html
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
• Smith, A. L. (1997). Oxford dictionary of biochemistry and molecular biology. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp.508.Photosynthesis: Two Stages in Detail TWO PHOTOSYNTHESIS REACTIONS: LIGHT AND DARK. Muhammad Y. Razak
  
  
  
  
  

• The Light Reaction: The Light Reaction stage of the Photosynthesis process takes place, for the most part in the Thylakoid stacks of the grana. The Thylakoid stacks are mainly sacs of flattened membrane like forms that make up the membranes in the chloroplast. During the phase of Light Reaction, natural sunlight is converted to chemical energy. This is taken care of during the process of ATP. ATP stands for Adenosine TriPhosphate. This is a nucleotide that is responsible for the transport of chemical energy within living cells. This is a fundamental part of the photosynthesis process. The sunlight is also converted into NADPH. NADPH stands forNicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate. This is essential for the transport of molecules during the process of photosynthesis. After sunlight is taken in, Chlorophyll will absorb the light energy which then starts a chain of events to eventually produce the ATP, NADPH, as well as oxygen. Oxygen is produced during the splitting of water molecules. The oxygen is then released through the Stomata. The Stomata is a pore, found in leaves or stems. It is responsible for the exchange of the plants gases.
  
  
  
  
  
• In Addition to the Light Dependent reaction: Within the light dependent reaction there is a series of processes that take place in order for the plant to make use of the carbons and create sugars to use within its system. The sugars that plants use are called glucose which is generated by the end of this light dependent reaction. As sunlight reaches the plants chlorophyll the water molecule breaks apart and makes the three separate atoms of Hydrogen, electron and the byproduct of oxygen. The electron in the photosystems of the plant. There are two photosystems involved with photosynthesis and they are simply called Photosystems I, and Photosystems II. First the electron will go into the chlorophyll molecule known as P680 and as the electron becomes “excited” it will be released into a higher energy state and this is a process that takes place within Photosystem II. The released electron travels down the photon gradient and eventually reaches the P700 chlorophyll molecule which is in found in Photosystem I. After this electron is yet again excited it travels down the electron transport chain. After this reductase breaks down NADP+ to NADPH and at the end all of this becomes glucose that is stored within the plants cells for future use. Also when NADP+ is broken down ATP molecules are created from Hydrogen atoms being pumped into the thylakoid membrane which originated form the Hydrogen atoms that were separated from the H20 molecule at the beginning of the photosynthesis process. ATP is generated only when there is a need of ATP in the plants cells.
  
  
  
  
• Farabee, M.J. PHOTOSYNTHESIS introduction to photosynthesis for High School and Undergraduate college students. Posted by the Arizona State University Site Center for Bioenergy & Photosynthesis [Internet]. [Cited September 24th 2009] Available From <http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html>
  
  
  
  
  

• The Dark Reaction: Dark Reactions during photosynthesis will occur in the Stomata. The carbon dioxide that is ingested into the plant will be turned into sugar during the process of ATP and NADPH. This process is commonly referred to as Carbon Fixation. In detail, the carbon fixation process is when any organism that produces its own food will convert gaseous compounds into a solid components. For instance, the plant will take in Carbon Dioxide, and through various phases and processes, it will produce a sugar. This carbon fixation along with any other actions is essential to the successful process of photosynthesis. During the Dark Reaction stage, the carbon dioxide is paired with a 5-Carbon sugar thus resulting in a 6 carbon sugar. Fructose and Glucose are the products of said 6 carbon sugar that will be broken down into the two molecules. Bailey, Regina. "Photosynthesis." 1. Web. 21 Sep 2009. <http://biology.about.com/od/plantbiology/a/aa050605a.htm>.
  
  
  
  
  
• "Glossary."Glossary Terms of Algae. Online, Web. 21 Sep 2009. <http://silicasecchidisk.conncoll.edu/LucidKeys/Carolina_Key/html/Glossary.html>.
  "Nitec Pharma."Nitec Pharma AG. 2007. Online, Web. 21 Sep 2009. <http://www.nitecpharma.com/glossary.asp>. small references and definitions: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NADPH en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fixation
  Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is everywhere. Plants and animals release carbon dioxide. The burning of fossil fuels also releases carbon dioxide. Deforestation is also increasing levels of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is described as a colorless odorless gas. Carbon dioxide is the main component of global warming. Carbon dioxide has steadily increased over the years. Carbon dioxide is also considered a greenhouse gas. With the increase of carbon dioxide Earth’s temperature is slowly beginning increasing. The greenhouse effect helps to keep the earth at an average temperature of 60 degrees Fahrenheit. As a result the temperature has slowly increased. With the rise in temperature we are seeing a rise in sea levels and warming of the land. The greenhouse effect helps to control the temperature of Earth. Greenhouse gasses trap and absorb heat because without it Earth would be a cold. "Carbon Dioxide (CO2)." Minnesota Department of Health. 14 May 2008. Web. 23 Sep 2009. <http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/indoorair/co2/index.html>. "EARTH A Graphic Look at the State of the World." Global Ecology. Web. 23 Sep 2009. <http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/global-ecology.php>. "Exploring the Environment Global Climate Change." Carbon Dioxide: Overview. 10 Nov 2004. Web. 23 Sep 2009. <http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/climate/GCcarbon1.html>. "Exploring the Environment Global Climate Change." Carbon Dioxide: Temperature. 10 Nov 2004. Web. 23 Sep 2009. <http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/climate/GCcarbon2.html>. "Global Warming International Center." The Ocean and Global Warming. 20 Sep 2005. Web. 24 Sep 2009. <http://www.globalwarming.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=136&Itemid=5>. "Woods Hole Research Center." The Greenhouse Effect. 2009. Web. 24 Sep 2009. <http://www.whrc.org/resources/online_publications/warming_earth/the_greenhouse_effect.htm>.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

Jon Claytor 9/22/09
Chemosynthesis is a biological process organisms use to produce energy, similar to photosynthesis but without the use of the sun. Extremophiles, microbes that thrive in extreme conditions, use chemosynthesis to produce energy; these bacteria are found near hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. They produce energy through the oxidization of chemicals in the Earth’s crust. These chemicals seep up through the Earth’s crust and the organisms use the organic molecules to produce their energy. This was made true almost one hundred years ago, by Sergei Nikolaevich Vinogradsky. He predicted that thermal vents existed in the nineteen seventies. Hot Springs and strange creatures, as a result to these thermal vents, were discovered by Alvin, the sea submersible. Along with the springs, and organisms, many different types of organisms were discovered near these vents close to the ocean floor. Without the sea submarines, we would not have discovered any organisms that pertain to the manufacturing of energy through chemosynthesis. A lot of times this process occurs at depths where research is not easily obtained. Two categories can be distinguished in the process of chemosynthesis. Rarely, when hydrogen molecules are present, the reaction between carbon dioxide molecules and hydrogen, which result in methane, will often be large enough to produce a biomass. In an ocean or aqueous environment, the reaction between oxygen and substances like hydrogen sulfide or ammonia will result in some useful energy towards the chemosynthesis reaction. Many of the organisms that are chemosynthetic are consumed by other organisms in the ocean. Symbiotic associations between the chemosynthetic organisms and respiring heterotrophs are common. Heterotrophs are organisms that require complex organisms to consume in order to obtain nutrition. Below is a picture of Photosynthesis and Chemosynthesis, you can see how both of these biological processes work and the differences between the two. www.pmel.noaa.gov/.../images/chemosynthesis.jpg Works Cited: Annissimov, Michael, . "What is Chemosynthesis?." (2009): n. pag. Web. 23 Sep 2009. <http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-chemosynthesis.htm>. Annissimov, Michael, . "What are Extremophiles?." (2009): n. pag. Web. 23 Sep 2009. <http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-extremophiles.htm>. "Chemosynthesis: A Theory for the Chemical Development of Life." Think Quest Team (2000): n. pag. Web. 23 Sep 2009. <http://library.thinkquest.org/C003763/pdf/origin04>. Taylor Hatfield 9/23/2009 BIODIVERSITY Biodiversity is one of the most common principles of biology on planet Earth. Biodiversity is just simply all the diverse biological concepts in different communities, populations, even ecosystems. The broadness of biology can expand anywhere from the rain forests in South America to the enormous populations of human beings in Asia. Biodiversity makes up the significantly different cultures of Earth, helping people from each culture understand each other a little bit. A lot of people wonder why biodiversity is as significant as it is. In fact, it “boosts ecosystem productivity where each species, no matter how small, all have an important role to play (Shah, Why is Biodiveristy…).” Biodiversity is what makes the world keep going around and around. For example, if there wasn’t an abundance of plant species on planet Earth, then we wouldn’t have as many crops as we do to eat and survive off of. Another example is all the future resources that exist on/in the Earth that we don’t know about or haven’t come around to using it to its full abilities yet (such as plants which can potentially be used as cures for cancer). The only downside is as the main components of biodiversity, humans are also the main contributors towards the harm done on Earth. With phenomena such as global warming and population expansion, humans are not only heating up the Earth significantly, they are also ruining some animal population of certain species in various areas. With random declinations of certain amphibious and fish species, that’s only a small piece of how harmed the biodiversity of Earth is. The biodiversity of Earth is something that’s too beautiful to be thrown away. Humans must see their mistakes and work on correcting them as soon as possible. Works Cited: Faith, Daniel P. "Biodiversity." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Web. 22 Sept. 2009. <http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/biodiversity/>. Shah, Anup. "Biodiversity ? Global Issues." Global Issues : social, political, economic and environmental issues that affect us all ? Global Issues. Web. 22 Sept. 2009. <http://www.globalissues.org/issue/169/biodiversity>. Shah, Anup. "Why Is Biodiversity Important? Who Cares? ? Global Issues." Global Issues : social, political, economic and environmental issues that affect us all ? Global Issues. Web. 22 Sept. 2009. http://www.globalissues.org/article/170/why-is-biodiversity-important-who-cares. Biodiversity and Conservation of Aquatic Organisms
Some leading causes of the retreating biodiversity in most aquatic masses includes ship ballast release, organisms clinging to ship surfaces, deliberate introduction, and unintentional introduction. “Human activities are causing species to disappear at an alarming rate. It has been estimated that between 1975 and 2015, species extinction will occur at a rate of 1 to 11 percent per decade” (Threats to Aquatic Biodiversity…[updated 2009]). Surprisingly, the leading cause of biodiversity reduction of aquatic organisms is not the fault of humans but is due to exotic species being introduced into unfamiliar bodies of water, which in turn affects the entire ecosystem and how it works and survives. These exotic species tend to thrive exceedingly successfully compared to the indigenous organisms, and therefore proceed to take over and disrupt the biodiversity immensely. “Exotic species can have many negative impacts on the environment, the economy, and human health. When species are introduced into an area, they may cause increased predation and competition, disease, habitat destruction, genetic stock alterations, and even extinction” (Exotic Species…[Updated 2009]). Efforts are currently being made to stop the reduction of biodiversity of aquatic organisms all around the globe. Economically, our aquatic ecosystems are important for industry, medicine, tourism, food resources, trading, and almost every aspect of our daily lives. The disruption of these ecosystems could eventually become so great, the entire world will be strongly affected by its depletion to a point of drastic deprivation in all aspects of our society. Works Cited Exotic Species [Internet]. [Updated 2009 April 9th]. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Aquatic Biodiversity; [Cited 2009 Sept 22]. Available from: http://www.epa.gov/bioindicators/aquatic/exotic.html. Threats to Aquatic Biodiversity [Internet]. [Updated 2009 April 9th]. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Aquatic Biodiversity; [Cited 2009 Sept 22]. Available from: http://www.epa.gov/bioiweb1/aquatic/threats.html Marine Biodiversity [Internet]. Marine Bio; [Cited 2009 Sept 22]. Available from: http://marinebio.org/Oceans/Conservation/biodiversity.asp - Janice Scheibe Bioremediation
Works Cited Environmental Inquiry: Authentic Scientific Research For High School Students. Cornell University and Penn State University. "Bioremediation." 2006. http://ei.cornell.edu/biodeg/bioremed/ CLU-IN. Sponsored by U.S. EPA Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation. Bioremediation Of Chlorinated Substances. 2009. http://www.cluin.org/techfocus/default.focus/sec/Bioremediation%5Fof%5FChlorinated%5FSolvents/cat/Overview/ Bio News Online. Microbiology. "What Is Bioremediation?" Transgalatic Ltd. 2005. http://www.bionewsonline.com/w/what_is_bioremediation.htm bostickjo (9/22/09) Health and health care in Developing Nations Health has a lot to do with quality of life and the access to medicine and technology. For example, in Africa there were 1.9 people diagnosed with HIV in 2007, and 1.5 million deaths related to the same disease. Without proper tests, people do not know they have it and that they are passing it on. It is an epidemic; mothers pass it on to children in child birth and then orphan them because they do not receive proper care or medical attention. In contrast, America about 56,000 cases of HIV per year. Although it is still unfortunate this many Americans contract HIV, the number is nothing compared to the rates in a developing nation such as Africa. Another example of poor health care in developing nations is the tuberculosis rates in Haiti. They do not have the medicine or the qualified health professionals to make the rates go down. TB is prevented with shots but is spread through the air through coughing and spit, so if a nation has a high rate of it already it will increase with normal bodily functions. In America, TB is not a big issue, because there is a vaccine that helps to prevent it. Medicines are so much more accessible in nations that are already established because people will make professions there. Going to a developing nation to be a health provider with no drugs or treatment to provide serves hardly a purpose. Without the technology of medicines and prevention methods nations will surely fall to the epidemics they are unaware of. Works Cited: Kanabus Annabell, Fredricksson-Bass Jenny, 2009. HIV amd AIDS in Africa. [Internet]. [cited 2009 September 20]. Available from http://www.avert.org/aafrica.htm USAID [Internet]. [Updated January 2009]. [cited 2009 Sep 20]. Available from: http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/id/tuberculosis/countries/lac/haiti_profile.html Krogh, David. A brief guide to Biology with physiology. Upper saddle River, NJ: De Boer Bonita, 2009. HIV and Aids in America. [Internet]. [cited 2009 September 20]. Available from http://www.avert.org/america.htm ENVIRONMENT VS GENETICS
Sexual Reproduction Sexual reproduction has two meanings one for humans and one for asexual bacteria. For the asexual bacteria sexual reproduction means the union that result in increasing genetic diversity of the offspring. For humans it is the formation of a new individual following the union of two gametes. Asexual bacteria can evolve into sexual reproduction if it has high levels of mutation induced by environmental stress such as climate change. Most eukaryotes such as humans, animals and plants are conceived by two parents. In order for gametes to work they need motility to be able to meet and unite; they also need food to nourish the developing embryo. For animals and plants needs are met by the anisogametes which are the union of two gametes that differ in size and form; such as sperm that are motile and eggs that contain food. As for the female reproductive system; females need males to reproduce. The female needs the male to fertilize her egg. The genes given to the children from the parents that are passed down are what make the similarities to other family members and they also make the child unique. The female has a reproductive system located exclusively in the pelvis. The external female reproductive organ is called the vulva (located between the leg, covers vagina and other reproductive organs located inside the body). The male human has two major functions in the sexual reproduction process, production of sperm and delivery of these to the reproductive tract of the female. In the males testicles each testis is packed with seminiferous tubules (laid end to end, they would extend more than 20 meters) where spermatogenesis occurs. Sperm Production-Spermatogenesis-takes place in testes Sources Study Links Origin of Sexual Reproduction With High Mutation Rates. Web. http://www.ask.com/bar?q=what+is+the+origin+of+sexual+reproduction&page=1&qsrc=19&ab=1&u=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.nationalgeographic.com%2Fnews%2F2001%2F07%2F0709_sexorigin.html. Sexual Reproduction in Humans. Web. http://www.ask.com/bar?q=what+is+sexual+reproduction&page=1&qsrc=2106&ab=2&u=http%3A%2F%2Fusers.rcn.com%2Fjkimball.ma.ultranet%2FBiologyPages%2FS%2FSexual_Reproduction.html. Female Reproductive System. Web. http://kidshealth.org/parent/general/body_basics/female_reproductive_system.html.
9/22/09 Aquatic Organisms
Work Cited National Biological Information Infrastructure (NBII):“Fisheries and Aquatic Resources”.http://www.nbii.gov/portal/community/Communities/Plants,_Animals_&_Other_Organisms/Fisheries_&_Aquatic_Resources/Aquatic_Organisms/ Latavia LaPrade 9/23/09 · Forests Forests are essential for the health of humans and this planet. In a way, forests are like a large, reverse set of lungs for planet earth. They suck in huge amounts of carbon dioxide, and exhale oxygen back into our atmosphere. In fact, forests absorb 30% of the carbon dioxide we exhale into the air each year. Forests and humans depend on each other for survival. But people tend to forget this when it comes to conserving forests. Not only does deforestation have a big impact on the environment, but other non-direct factors can affect our forests. One example is pollution. The gases and fumes released into the air everyday from things such as cars and factories can extensively damage forests. Forests need rain to survive, but when the pollution released into the air mixes with atmospheric moisture, the rain then becomes acidic. This acid rain affects forests in many ways. The waxy, outer coating of leaves is worn away, which in turn causes the leaves to lose nutrients and become less resistant to insects. Eventually, this will cause the tree to die off. Some trees roots are physically damaged, which decreases the growth and can also cause the tree to die. Acid rain puts a strain on the new growth of trees by killing off many of the seedlings. The rain is killing trees and preventing new trees from growing. And it all leads back to the pollution we release into the air. One hundred years from now, what will our forests look like? “Go Green” is a term that has become quite popular recently, and people are finding more and more ways to reduce the amount of pollution in the air. Cars are being made that give off less fumes, solar energy is being used more often and some factories have cut back on their release of gases by half. If humans keep finding more efficient ways to care for this planet and its forests, then in one hundred years from now our forests should still be just as healthy, which in a way, means we will be healthy too. Sources The Dying of the Trees", by Charles E. Little, 1995, Penguin Books ISBN: 0670841358.Available from http://library.thinkquest.org Internet.[updated 2008, June 12]. American Association for the Advancement of Sciences, available at www.eurekalert.org Allison Bragg, 9/24/09 Global warming and habitability of Earth How is global warming affecting our planet and how we live today? First, one has to know what is global warming, exactly. Global warming is the average rising temperature of the earth’s surface. This is caused not only by humans’ actions but by natural forces such as volcanic eruptions. But in recent years, most damage has been caused by humans burning fossil fuel destroying forests, and other various damaging actions. Consequently, global warming affects the earth’s weather patterns, raises the sea level, and expands deserts. Humans can take a great role in slowing down the rapidly, increasing global warming rate. We can use less energy by conserving our electricity, use cleaner fuel for out automobiles, plant trees, recycle, and use biodegradable products. These are few ways that we can help our planet. -LaPorsha McKayhan 9/23/09

Sexual reproduction is basically meiosis taking place inside the reproductive organs only; known as the ovaries and the testes. This process creates offspring of two individuals; a male and a female. The process of fertilization is very significant to sexual reproduction because reproduction can only take place with fertilization. Fertilization is the process when the human egg and the sperm bond and form a new organism. There are two processes of reproduction, the male reproductive system and the female reproductive system. During the male reproductive system, there are two key functions. The first is the sperm production and the second is the delivery of the sperm to the female. Sperm is made in the male’s testes, while the testes produce testosterone. Testosterone is a hormone that provides the males with their sex characteristics. While the immature sperm cells are being made in the testes, they later move to the epididymis, where they are stored and developed. When a male ejaculates, the reproductive cells, also known as the sperm, travels through the vas deferens where it mixes with fluid from the seminal vesicles and a secretion from the prostate gland, which produces semen. The semen then enters the urethra. Once the semen exits the body, it is deposited into the female’s vagina. Now the sexual reproduction takes place in the female. The female sex organs are the two ovaries which make the eggs and produce estrogen; which is the female sex hormone. When the sperm is in the vagina, it makes its way to the cervix and through the uterus. One of the sperm will eventually come in contact with one of the female’s egg, where the head of the sperm (which contains enzymes) will make its way into the egg, and its tail will fall off, leaving fertilization to transpire. The egg then fertilizes in the fallopian tube and becomes a zygote because half of its chromosomes are from the male and the other half are from the female. The genetic material from both the male and female combine to create a new cell (individual) in the female’s uterus. Works Cited

• Freudenrich, Craig PhD. “How Sex Works.” How Stuff Works. HowStuffWorks, Inc. 2009. 23 September 2009. <http://health.howstuffworks.com/human-reproduction6.htm>.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
• “Sexual Reproduction-How it works.” Science Clarified. 2007. 22 September 2009. <http://www.scienceclarified.com/everyday/Real-Life-Biology-Vol-2/Sexual-Reproduction-How-it-works.html>.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
• [photo] Svensson, Peter. “Reproduction and Development.” Biology Introduction to General Biology. 20 April 2009. 23 September 2009. <instruct.westvalley.edu/>.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
• “Your Reproductive System.” Sukraja. 2009. 22 September 2009. < http://www.sukraja.com/>.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

-Dominique Harris

Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is essential to the survival of any species in the animal kingdom. For sexual reproduction to occur both a male and female are needed to complete this process. There are two beginning parts needed in order for a new being to be conceived, a sperm, and an egg. The male is responsible for creating and containing sperm in his testes, by a process known as spermatogenesis. Spermatogenesis occurs in the testes where seminiferous tubules are present, and within them meiosis occurs. The female must produce an egg to combine with the male’s sperm in order to begin the process. She must also be fertile and must be able to initially receive the male’s sperm to combine with her egg. For a female to become fertilized the males sperm must be present in the vagina within a five day period of the females ovulation. If the sperm makes its way through the vagina to the fallopian tubes and an egg is present, fertilization will occur. If fertilization is successful with the combining of a healthy sperm and an active egg the female will begin pregnancy. The female must now carry the developing infant within her body until its birth. Pregnancy last about nine months on average for a human child to be developed and born. The mother will provide life support to the developing child through an umbilical cord that will be cut after the child is released from inside its mother. After the umbilical cord is cut the mother will continue to nurse and nurture the child by feeding it milk from her breast. (Logan Sandy) Kimball, John. "Sexual Reproduction". Sept. 23 2009 <http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html>.Anderson, John. "Human Sexual Reproduction: An Overview". Sept. 24 2009 <http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/1515497/human_sexual_reproduction_an_overview.html>.



Sexual reproduction is when a new individual is formed with the synthesis of two gametes. It is necessary for gametes to have food/fuel to take care of the embryo that is developing and the ability of meeting and joining the two gametes. For fertilization to be possible the male reproductive system and the female reproductive system has to work together. Sperm must be stored inside of the vagina on the day of the ovulation or within a few days before it. The male reproductive system’s job is to produce, store, and transfer the male reproductive cells, called sperm, and protective fluid, called semen. Another job of the male reproductive system is to release the sperm inside of the female reproductive system during the act of sex. The female reproductive system is meant to do certain tasks. The female reproductive system’s job is to create the female egg cells which are needed for reproduction. For conception the sperm and semen must be passed through the urethra and is get expelled into the vagina. Fallopian tubes is usually the location in which the conception, the fertilization of egg by a sperm, occurs. If there is no fertilization the female reproductive system will menstruate, which is a monthly process of shedding the uterine lining.










Works Cited Guide to the Female Reproductive System. September 24 2009. http://www.webmd.com/sex-relationships/guide/your-guide-female-reproductive-system Guide to the male Reproductive System. September 24 2009. http://www.webmd.com/sex-relationships/guide/your-guide-male-reproductive-system How Reproductive system works. http://www.innerbody.com/image/repmov.html Female reproductive system. November 18 2008. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/femalereproductivesystem.html
Junsik Yhun (YhunJ) 9/24/2009




Among the many controversies in the scientific community, perhaps one of the largest and most crucial to be resolved is stem cell research. The possible benefits of stem cell advancements are many. A stem cell is, in simple terms, a cell that is able to develop into any other kind of cell type. This means that stem cells could be used to help in disorders where a person may be lacking crucial cells or someone who has undergone extensive physical harm such as a spinal cord injury. The use of stem cells could greatly aid in helping an afflicted person to regain the kind of cells needed to help them get better. The main debate with stem cells lies, however, with the issue pro-life. To harvest stem cells, it requires the destruction of a human embryo, as the stem cells are taken from the embryo. Many people think that a human life begins when the sperm fertilizes the egg, and therefore believe that the destruction of a developing human embryo in any capacity is murder. Others believe, however, that the potential benefit of these stem cells outweighs this loss of what they don’t consider to yet be a human life. The United States currently has laws in place to strictly guide stem cell research. Some alternatives suggested by those opposed to the use of embryonic stem cells are to use adult stem cells. Some problems with this, however, are that adult stem cells are less easily found with only 1 out of 1,000 cells being able to be used. They are also less adaptable to any kind of system. The most important issue that the controversy has left us with, it seems, is that a reliable and effective method of extracting embryonic stem cells from embryos without destroying them needs to be found. -Seaton Kerby September 24, 2009 Sources: Doherty. 2006. The Stem Cell Controversy: A Directors Forum with Best-Selling Novelist Robin Cook. Global Health Initiative. http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=116811&fuseaction=topics.event_summary&event_id=161696 Li. 2007. The Stem Cell Controversy. http://www.biotech.ucdavis.edu/TBCWebsites/TBC07/StemCells&TissueEngineering/Li-MiraLoma/Biotech%20Website%20Design/index.html Berger. 2001. Research Avenue Adds Fuel to Stem Cell Controversy. CNN. http://archives.cnn.com/2001/HEALTH/07/11/stem.cell.fact/ Cloning Cloning refers to a process used to produce an exact genetic replica of an organism, tissue, or cell. There are three different types of artificial cloning; reproductive cloning (creates copies of whole animals), gene cloning (creates copies of genes or segments of DNA), and therapeutic cloning (creates embryonic stem cells). The copy in which contains the same genetic material as the original is referred to as the clone. Sometimes in nature, cloning occurs naturally; for example, single-celled organisms reproducing through asexual reproduction, and identical twins. To clone a gene, a gene from one organism is inserted into the genetic material of a vector. Yeast cells as well as bacteria are examples of vectors. Once the gene has been inserted, it is placed in a laboratory with conditions that will make it multiply, resulting in many copies of the gene. To perform reproductive cloning, a somatic cell, such as a skin cell from an animal that is to be copied is transferred into an egg cell in which has its own nucleus containing its DNA removed. The egg is then placed into a test tube and is given time to develop into an early-stage embryo. Once the embryo has begun to develop, it is then placed into the womb of an adult female animal. Animals that researchers have cloned include mice, cows, sheep, and chicken. The most famous cloned animal is Dolly, the sheep. Therapeutic cloning produces embryonic stem cells containing the same DNA as the donor cell. This type of cloning is performed to experiment on and study the stem cells produced in an effort to understand diseases, and attempting to test cures for diseases. Sources "Cloning". National Human Genome Research Institute. 12 March 2009. 24 September 2009. http://www.ehow.com/how_4481180_cite-internet-source.html?ref=fuel&utm_source=yahoo&utm_medium=ssp&utm_campaign=yssp_art "Cloning". Medline Plus. 14 September 2009. 24 September 2009. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/cloning.html "Cloning Reproductive". A Review of the Universe. 24 September 2009. http://www.universe-review.ca/option2.htm -Shamika West September 24, 2009 Hannah Konteh September 24, 2009 Steroids are natural lipids that are essential for the reproductive process. They are made up of four carbon-ring structures. One essential steroid hormone produced by the body is estrogen. Estrogen is, without a doubt, the most recognizable hormone and is commonly referred to as the “female hormone”. It is responsible for the production and growth of female sexual characteristics. It is produced in the ovaries, adrenal glands, and fat tissues. Contrary to popular belief, estrogen is also produced in males, although its purpose in males is currently up for debate. Testosterone, also known as the “male hormone”, is another well-known hormone. It is involved in the sexual features and development of males. It is primarily made by the testicles. The adrenal glands minimally produce testosterone for both sexes. Many people say that, “Too much of a good thing is a bad thing”; the athletic field has taken that quote to another level. There is now a heavy use of anabolic steroids in the professional field, which enhances athletic performances and increases testosterone levels. As the steroids increase your physical abilities, they decrease the production of natural steroids. Each gender has specific side effects. In females, there is an increase in masculine characteristics, such as a deeper voice, growth of body hair, and changes in the menstrual cycle. In males, there is an increase in feminine characteristics, such as development of breasts. As males become more feminine, naturally, they begin to lose aspects of their masculinity, such as a reduced sperm count and shrunken testicles. While both sexes experience different side effects, there are also effects that both sexes may come across, such as acne, rapidly gaining weight, and damage to the liver. Some of the listed side effects become permanent after constant use of anabolic steroids. As much as performance enhancers may prolong athletic abilities and fame, the sacrifice of a person’s health and well-being is at stake, which may, in turn, become fatal. ESPN [Internet]. [updated 2007 Sept 6]; [cited 2009 Sept 23]. Available from: http://espn.go.com/special/s/drugsandsports/steroids.html National Women’s Health Resource Center [Internet]. [updated 2009 May 14]. Red Bank (NJ): National Women's Health Resource Center; [cited 2009 Sept 2003]. Available from: http://www.healthywomen.org/healthtopics/estrogen [Picture]. [updated 2009 Sept 24]; [cited 2009 Sept 24]. Available from: http://www.isteroids.com/images/anabolic_steroids.jpg Web MD [Internet]. [updated 2008 May 29]; [cited 2009 Sept 2003]. Available from: http://men.webmd.com/testosterone-15738 Cameron Quinn September 28 Interesting facts about sea snakes: The sea snake is a snake that spends its entire life or most of it at sea with exception to the Laticauda which allows for some land movement. These snakes are considered Venomous Elapid Snakes which means they have poisonous venom and they are found primarily in tropical areas. Most of the sea snakes in the world range from the areas of Indian Ocean and on to the Pacific. They tend to take on an eel like appearance but they are not a part of the fish family. They are considered air-breathing vertebrates. The sea snake contains some of the most potent venoms of all known snakes. These snakes comprise of 17 different descents and they contain 62 species. These snakes can range from being very aggressive and very calm. Most sea snakes use eels and forms of fish as there main feeding group some prefers Mollusks or Crustaceans. Some species of snakes feed on only fish eggs. This is unusual for a venomous snake to do because they tend to use there venom as a paralysis or method of killing there victim. These snakes are highly venomous but because of there small mouths little venom is injected when they bite. When the snake bites a human it causes a form of paralysis as the venom breaks down skeletal tissue. After this happens trismus occurs which is very similar to tetanus. Later flaccid paralysis occurs and the ptosis which takes away movement in voluntary muscles. Eventually, hyperkalemia, a result of muscle breakdown occurrences leads to cardiac arrest and resulting in death. Reptiles Database [Internet]. [updated 2006]. Rockville (MD): J. Criag Institute; [cited 2009 Sep 28]. Available from: http://www.jcvi.org/reptiles/families/elapidae.php Scubadoc’s Diving Medicine Online [Internet]. [updated 2009 June 25]. Huntsville (AL) [cited 2009 Sep 28]. Available from: http://scuba-doc.com/seasnks.htm

Biotechnology
(Dustin Williams, September 24, 2009)
Biotechnology is defined as the use of technology to define and manipulate the natural process of biology. Biotechnology is being used daily by many organizations. There are four major aspects of biotechnology. Each aspects of biotechnology are very important to the societies, and it also has a lot of impact to our life. The four majors’ aspect of biotechnologies consists of:
1. Transgenic Biotechnology- Transgenic Biotechnology is the spicing DNA of one species of animal or plant and placing it into another. Through transgenic biotechnology, we could control the growth rate and the size of animals and crops. It can also be used to create the perfect DNA for ideal animal or even human.
2. Reproductive Cloning- Reproductive cloning is the cloning of an adult animal to produce another identical copy. This process of biotechnology has been successfully practice by researchers in Scotland in 1997. The sheep that was clone is name Dolly. She is the combination of white sheep and the black-face sheep. Through the process of cloning, we may one day be able to bring back dinosaurs.
3. Forensic Biotechnology- Forensic Biotechnology is the process of quickly copying specific segments of DNA. Forensic Biotechnology is heavily used in DNA testing. DNA testing is used to identify criminals, and it was also a large part of identifying the body parts of the victims of 9-11. They take the DNA of the body part that was found in the debris and match it with the known family members.
4. Stem Cells - Stem Cells are the use of special cells to produce and repair damage human tissues. Through stem cells research, the researchers are trying to perfect their abilities to grow new heart and other organs. When this process is perfected it will revolutionize the hospital world. It will greatly help reduce the rejection rate of organs transplanted in humans.
Sources: CliffsNotes.com. Tools of Biotechnology. 19 Sep 2009 <http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/CliffsReviewTopic/topicArticleId-8741,articleId-8624.html>.
Krogh, David. 2007. A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology: Biotechnology. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. P. 232-248.

THE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE OF HIV
by: Arleen Paredes
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is a retrovirus that attacks the immune system, weakening the body from fighting off illnesses. A retrovirus is an RNA virus, which consists of an RNA genome enveloped in a protein capsid, surrounded by a viral envelope composed of lipids. Glycoproteins present on the viral envelope link to the specific receptor molecules on the membrane of the host cell, allowing the viral proteins and the RNA to enter the cell. (Campbell and Reece 2005). This begins the process of infection. An increased count in infected cells could most likely lead to the diagnosis of AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). People with AIDS are more susceptible to infections, cancers and neurological damage (WebMD, 2009).
Retroviruses are especially dangerous due its reverse transcriptase. These enzymes are a unique characteristic of retroviruses because of its ability to transcribe an RNA template into DNA. Once these molecules are released into the cytoplasm, two DNA strand corresponding to the viral RNA is produced. The double-stranded DNA combines with that of the cell as a provirus as a permanent resident. The RNA from the provirus’ genes becomes genomes for another generation of viruses and as mRNAs to translate more viral proteins. Capsids envelope the viral genomes and reverse transcriptase molecules to form new viruses, which bud off from the host cell. For this reason, viruses are complicated to treat. The creation of a vaccine is needed to control the disease and information on the state of HIV research has recently shown the first evidence of efficacy from an HIV vaccine candidate (Mermin 2009). The image below displays the structure of HIV and a basic image of the step-by-step process of the reproduction of the retrovirus.




SOURCES:
Campbell N, Reece J. 2005. Biology, 7th edition. San Francisco, CA: Pearson. p.340-343.
Mermin, Jonathan, Dr. [Internet]. [updated 2009 Sept. 24]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; [cited 2009 Sept. 23] Available from: <http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/research/resources/other/rv144.pdf>.
WebMD [Internet]. [updated 2009 Sept. 25] Sexual Health: HIV and AIDS; [cited 2009 Sept. 23]. Available from: <http://www.webmd.com/hiv-aids/guide/sexual-health-aids>.
The reproductive cycle of HIV, a retrovirus. [photo] http://www.bio.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/handouts/c18x7HIV-replication.jpg



Future of Life on Earth The future is an unknown entity filled with wonder and potential. No one knows exactly what it holds or what direction it will go. The future of earth lies in the hands of mankind. So far the path that we have steered our planet in is not a great one. We have drastically changed Earth in ways that it has never experienced before. Since 1960, our population doubled to 6 billion in the world and yet it’ll probably hit up to 8 to 10 billion later this century. The population increase would affect pollution levels, increase the demand for housing and raw materials, and possibly result in government control of childbirth. With the jump in our planet’s population the amount of Earth’s natural resources will not be able to handle the strain that mankind will put on it. People will be forced to find man made alternatives to replace the resources that we sucked the Earth dry of already. This will lead to an ever increasingly innovated technology field, but all of the strides that we make will be out of necessity instead of interest. Earth has never before handled even the population levels that it is supporting today and if those numbers increase the environment will take turns that not even scientist can fully predict. A huge problem is the waste that such a huge number of humans produce. Where will it all go? In the past the earth has been an ever repeating recycling center and almost everything we use can be returned to the environment without too much damage to the natural balance of ecosystems. But even today we use such materials as Styrofoam, which does not decompose at all. And the huge issue of our carbon emissions has moved from a distant hippie battle cry to the floor of the U.S. Congress. If answers to these unknowns cannot be found soon the earth maybe in store for a damaging and volatile future. Sources Woodard, Colin. “Earth in the balance- could tilt either way.” The Christian Science Monitor. 2009. Harvard University. [Cited Sept 22 2009]. Available from < http://www.csmonitor.com/2002/0117/p15s01-bogn.html> Klare Michael T. “Our Oil Addiction is About to Make life a Lot Nastier.” AlterNet. 2009. [Cited Sept 22 2009]. Available from <http://www.alternet.org/environment/142834/our_oil_addiction_is_about_to_make_life_a_lot_nastier> Wikipedia contributors. Overpopulation. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; [Cited Sept 22 2009]. Available from <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Overpopulation> Tae Kim September 24,2009


Homeostasis In order for organisms to survive in this fluctuating world, their bodies have to adapt to their environment. They have to maintain a constant balance in their bodies for it to function properly. Homeostasis is a process that helps the body maintain a constant internal environment even with severe changes in the external environment. One major focus of homeostasis is temperature. Not all animals can contain a constant temperature by internal functions. The animals that cannot do this are called ectotherms. Ectotherms use behavioral mechanisms to maintain their environment (like finding shade if they are hot and lying in the sun if they are cold). Endotherms, however, are animals that can contain a constant temperature by internal functions. These two groups are different because endothermic animals contain internal corrective mechanisms to maintain their constant environment. Humans are endotherms, however, they do use behavioral mechanisms as their first tactic to maintain homeostasis. Voluntary responses such as taking off a sweater when one is hot or putting on a sweater when one is cold are some tactics of behavioral mechanisms. When these responses are not enough to stabilize their internal environment, their body begins to use internal corrective mechanisms. This includes involuntary actions such as shivering and sweating. In the human body, the thermoregulatory centre, which is in the hypothalamus (a part of the brain), is responsible for regulating body temperature. Two kinds of thermoreceptors send input to the thermoregulatory centre. The two kinds are the receptors in the hypothalamus (which monitors the temperature of blood as it passes the brain), and the receptors in the skin (which monitors the external environment). The body can make adjustments based on the sets of information that is sent to the thermoregulatory centre by the two types of receptors. This whole process causes the thermoregulatory centre to maintain a stable temperature of 37 degrees Celsius unless the person has a fever which means that the body is not maintaining homeostasis. Homeostasis is vital for human survival. People are challenged everyday by physical and mental stresses, injuries, and diseases that can affect their internal environment. The body may fall out of control when it loses its internal balance. Serious consequences of this lapse of control include dysfunction, illness, and even death.

Bibliography: IHW [Internet]. [updated 2006 March]. [cited 2009 September 20]. Available from: http://www.biologymad.com/resources/A2%20Homeostasis.pdf Monosson, Emily 2008. Homeostasis. In: The Encyclopedia of Earth. [internet][Washington DC]: National Library of Medicine; [cited 2009 Sept 23]. Available from: http://www.eoearth.org/article/Homeostasis Rosnay, J. 1997. Homeostasis: Resistance to Change. Principia Cybernetica Web [Internet]. [cited 2009 September 22]; 7:00. Available from: http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/HOMEOSTA.html NESANETTE YOHANNES
Conservation: Human health and happiness depend on biodiversity. How to save an ecosystem Arviet Rawlings, September 24, 2009 Merriam Webster describes biodiversity as biological diversity in an environment as indicated by numbers of different species of plants and animals. Biodiversity is also referred to as the diversity of biology on the planet or the entire variety of life forms that exist on our planet. Biodiversity exists within various ecosystems. Ecosystems are the complex communities of organisms and their environments functioning as ecological units. Biodiversity which exists in ecosystems such as the coral reef in the ocean that is full of fish or even Earth which is an ecosystem in itself being that it houses millions of species and their habitats, is important to humans. For one, humans depend on Earth’s rich biodiversity for simple hobbies and activities such as bird watching and having a variety of fish to choose from to eat or even take home as a pet. But there are more significant reasons to preserve our diverse species. Whenever a species is lost, another species that depends on the lost species will be threatened and possibly destroyed in the future. No species exists alone or exists without participating in a relationship with other species. Essential processes to our planet such as weather patterns and plant growth cycles depend on a wide range of organisms. Thus being said, it is vital that humans try their best to save all of Earth’s organisms. One way to save ecosystems, therefore conserving Earth’s biodiversity is to cease deforestation. Deforestation takes away habitats and along with them, the species that live within. Another way to preserve ecosystems is to replant vegetation after plants have been removed by natural processes such as storms or by humans. This will increase the amount of species that live in the area because they have a habitat in which to thrive. Reducing the amount of toxins and pollutants we use also helps to stop species from dying so rapidly. Pollution destroys the ozone layer, quickening the effect of global warming. Polar bears are feeling the effect of global warming. As the temperature rises, the glaciers melt. Because there are no glaciers for the polar bears to use to get fish, they starve and die. Although the animals and plants are dying today, we are the ones who will suffer in the end if we do not take responsibility and realize the importance of biodiversity and preserving our ecosystems. "biodiversity." Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2009. Merriam-Webster Online. 24 September 2009
<http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/biodiversity>
"ecosystem." Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2009.Merriam-Webster Online. 24 September 2009
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ecosystem "Biodiversity" The GEneral KNowledge store 2009. 24 September 2009.< http://theknowledgeportal.com/biodiversity>Google.com.2009. 24 September 2009. http://google.com/ "Coral Reef" Charles Bridge. 2009. 24 September 2009. <http://www.charlesbridge.com/client/client_images/spreads/athome_reef.jpg>

Gel Electrophoresis
Using the gel electrophoresis technique in molecular biology scientists are able to separate DNA fragments. Gel electrophoresis allows for this separation when the charged fragments are placed in an electric field. The fragments, depending on their charge, migrate towards either the positive or negative pole. Unlike proteins and other molecules, DNA has a consistent negative charge. The DNA will move different lengths based on the size of the piece of the cut DNA.The smaller chunks will travel farther then the larger ones. The gel used in gel electrophoresis is composed of agarose and is cast into a slab with wells to hold the nucleic acid. The agarose is put in an electrophoresis buffer that makes ions to carry a current and maintain the pH at a constant value. The results you would expect from DNA digested with only enzyme X are four fragments of the lengths, 400, 1700, 1300, and 1500bp. With DNA digested with only enzyme Y you would expect to see two fragments at 900, and 4000bp. In treatment III, DNA digested with enzyme X and enzyme Y combined would result in five fragments
at 400, 500, 1200, 1300, 1500bp. Treatment IV, which is the undigested DNA would result in one long 4900bp fragment. Restriction enzymes are a molecular biologists scissors. They cut DNA at a limited number of specific locations. Enzymes cut at every target location. Each restriction enzyme recognizes a particular short DNA sequence also called the restriction site. Most restriction sites are symmetrical in that the sequence of nucleotides are the same on both sides. The restriction enzymes recognize sequences containing 4 to 8 nucleotides. If a mutation occurred at the recognition site for enzyme Y you would expect in treatment II for the DNA to create one uncut band like in treatment IV. Another change would be in treatment III where it would transform to be 4 bands like in treatment I. In some cases the Y site may actually even become an X site.



"Gel Electrophoresis." Web. 24 Sep 2009.<http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/gelelectrophoresis.html>.
"Gel Electrophoresis." Web. 24 Sep 2009.
<http://www.dnalc.org/resources/animations/gelelectrophoresis.html>.
"Agarose Gel Electrophoresis of DNA." 5/01/2000. Web. 24 Sep 2009.
<http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/genetics/biotech/gels/agardna.html>.

Shannon Hahn (hahnse)
September 24, 2009
Dead zones Dead Zones are hypoxic or low-oxygen areas in lakes, ponds, and especially oceans. In oceans these areas are along the coast where most aquatic life is located. Because these areas are lacking oxygen they are not able to sustain life and therefore organisms do not survive. The cause of low levels of oxygen in these areas is mainly due to high nitrogen and phosphorous levels. The nitrogen is created naturally through the nitrogen cycle as well as manufactured by humans and used to fertilize crops. The nitrogen is absorbed by the plants but the excess nitrogen is then carried within runoff and eventually reaches the ocean. Nitrogen is a nutrient and a limiting factor which means it controls plant growth, but an excessive amount can enable the growth of phytoplankton. A surplus of phytoplankton increases bacterial respiration which produces carbon dioxide. Because there is too much carbon dioxide present the phytoplankton are not able to quickly produce enough oxygen to level it out. Living organisms need oxygen to survive so they are forced to leave or die. Other factors such as water temperature and water flow can also contribute to dead zones. A well known dead zone is the Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone. It was estimated that 1.5 million metric tons of nitrogen are carried into the Gulf annually. This year it was predicted to be the size of New Jersey. Another known dead zone is the Black Sea. It is said to be the largest dead zone in terms of depth.
Works Cited
Krogh D. 2007. Abiotic Factors in Biology. A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology. Upper Saddle River(NJ): Pearson Prentice Hall. P. 419-420 The Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone and Red Tides [Internet]. New Orleans(LA): Tulane University; [Cited 2000 Jan. 05]. Available From. http://www.tulane.edu/~bfleury/envirobio/enviroweb/DeadZone.htm
The Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone [Internet]. St. Paul (MN): Science Museum of Minnesota. Biology; [Cited 2009 Sept. 22]. Available from. http://www.smm.org/deadzone/



DEAD ZONE What is a Dead Zone? No, it’s not the area where our cell phones don’t work. Dead Zones or hypoxic zones are areas of large bodies of water where there is a low supply of oxygen, therefore making it unable to support life. Usually dead zones are caused by an increase of chemicals nutrients, mainly nitrogen and phosphorus which is called eutrophication. Eutrophication can lead to a rapid increase of phytoplankton, which is known as algal bloom (a rapid increase of algae in an aquatic setting). When the algal blooms die off, bacteria decompose the algae which results in taking the water’s available oxygen. The oxygen levels get to a point where it cannot support life. This means all the creatures and plants that rely on the oxygen in that body of water must now move to a different location where there is an abundance of oxygen or else they will die. In addition to this, dead zones can occur from natural and human factors. Scientist is concerned that human activities are creating more of these areas. Physical, chemical, and biological factors are contributing to the creation of the dead zones, but the main factors human contribute in dead zones are nutrient pollution. Nutrients that we dispose can run off land and/or wastewater that goes into the rivers and coasts can create an excess amount of algae. Dead Zones can occur all over the world, no body of water is protected from it. The 2nd largest dead zone exists in the US; it is the Northern Gulf of Mexico. Both marine life and human life are affected by dead zones. Bottom-dwellers (snails, crabs, starfish, etc.) cannot escape the areas of the dead zones so they die. Fish and shrimps move out of dead zone areas into different bodies of waters. This can result in fisherman’s not being able to catch fish, seafood supply to drop, and for its prices to rise. Harmful algal bloom such as red tide and golden algae, produce toxins when they decay, causing marine products to become poisonous to humans.

The Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone [Internet]. St. Paul (MN): Science Museum of Minnesota. Biology; [Cited 2009 Sept. 22]. Available from. http://www.smm.org/deadzone/
Dead Zone [Internet].[Updated 2009 Aug. 20]. Silver Spring (MD): US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; [Cited 2009 Sept. 24]. Available from. http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/deadzone.html
Dead Zone (Ecology) [Internet]. Rockville (MD): Science Daily. Science Reference; [Cited 2009 Sept. 24]. Available from. http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/d/dead_zone_(ecology).htm

Forests

In our ecosystem the greatest number of species can be found in forests, which makes up forest biological diversity. All life forms found in forest are able to perform ecological roles, making them part of biological diversity. Forest biological diversity can be considered in three levels, the ecosystem level, specie level, and genetic level. Over the million of years organisms were able to adapt to environmental changes and keep ecosystem functions running smoothly. Although, over the past thousand of years approximately 45% of the Earth’s original forests have disappeared and it’s sad to say that the main reason for such a high percentage is because of us humans. We’ve continuously been transforming our forests into agricultural lands and our contribution to global warming has left our forests crying for help. Mining, oil exploitation, and all the pollution we are creating is leading to climate change and is only negatively affecting forest biological diversity. As a result, the biodiversity of our forests have been decreasing, making it more difficult for all living species to adapt because of the environmental changes we are so carelessly creating. Forests provide us with various numbers of goods and services, such as watershed services and carbon storage. As a whole, forests have a great impact on economic and social roles which is way it’s essential for us pay attention to the problems our forests our having and take action. To help keep forest biological diversity from continuing from being affected, governments and other organizations such as The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, have been working to keep forests alive their species living more peacefully.

By: Diana Shayda Farajollahi

UNEP [Internet]. [updated 2008-08-18]. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity; [cited 2009 Sept. 18]. Available from: http://www.cbd.int/forest/about.shtml


Population
A population is the group of organisms of the same area that inhibits a given area. An example of a population is the group of African Bush Elephants (Loxodonta africana) inhibiting the shore of Lake Kariba bordering Zambia and Zimbabwe. Population is the smallest level of group organization. Ecologist wish to know the following thing about a population: how to count it, how it is distributed, why it is distributed over its geographical area, how its size changes, why its size changes over a time period, and what its population dynamics are. Ecologist want to keep record the number of members of a given population, in order to examine how much territory is needed for a particular population to flourish and the time needed for a population recover from disasters. The only way for ecologist to know the boost of or dwindling of population is to compare it to the number of the population before the incident occurs. Recording population becomes more difficult when the species becomes larger and more immobile, such as trees. It also becomes more difficult when the area under investigation becomes larger or when the species is continuously moving. Population growth is classified under either arithmetic or exponential growth. Arithmetical increase is an increase in numbers by an addition of a fixed number in each time period. Exponential increase is an increase in numbers that is proportional to the number already in existence, occurs in population of living things and carries the potential for big growth of population. Natural population growth can be further broken down into three categories: exponential, logistic, and more complex. Exponential growth is the population growth in which the rate increase keeps accelerating. It is categorized by a J-shaped curve, slow growth at first and then increasingly faster growth. Logistic growth is population growth of a population in which the rate of growth slows and finally ceases altogether. It is categorized as an S-shaped growth curve. There are forces that may limit the growth of population. Those forces of the environment are environmental resistance: organisms running out of food, sunlight blockage, increase of predators, or increase in waste. There is a carrying capacity, k, maximum population of a given species that a defined geographical region can support, that a population tries to reach. Environmental resistance affects population relationship in correspondence to the carrying capacity.
-Jessica Williams
Work Cited:
Krogh, David. 2007. A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology. Upper Saddle River (NJ): Personal Education, Inc. p 391-393.




McKenzie Easter 9/25/09 Last Monday, September 21 2009, a sum of 1.2 million dollars was granted to shell-fishermen in the Cape Cod area of Massachusetts. These fishermen were affected by the harmful 2008 red tide that plagued the upper east shore. A red tide, or more commonly known as an algal bloom, occurs when microscopic organisms called dinoflagellates reproduce in massive amounts. Dinoflagellates flourish in the warm months, however as a result of environmental conditions sometimes the natural increase leads to rapid growth causing red tides. This phenomenon gets its name due to abundant amounts of dinoflagellates that cloud the water and give it the appearance of having a red or gold tint. A dinoflagellate is a type of protist, most of which are photosynthetic meaning they produce their own food using sunlight. Dinoflagellates serve as a source of food for many other marine organisms, however, when a red tide occurs dinoflagellates produce neurotoxins that are harmful to many marine and non-marine organisms. The consumption of these harmful neurotoxins through infected shellfish can cause respiratory failure and death in 12 hours in humans. The incident in Cape Cod was so severe it affected the waters surrounding Maine and New Hampshire as well. Luckily the government responded to the contained disaster and granted the fishermen funds to compensate for the destructive algal bloom. In the future the government hopes to better prevent and respond to harmful algal blooms knowing the detriment it causes to the fishing industry. Sources: "All About Dinoflagellates." Assure Controls. 2008. Assure Controls, Inc., Web. 24 Sep 2009. <http://www.assurecontrols.com/info-dinoflagellates.htm>. Macrae, Andrew. "Introduction to the Dinoflagellata." University of California Museum of Paleontology. 2009. Regents of the University of California, Web. 24 Sep 2009. <http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/dinoflagellata.html>. Pollock, Alan. "State Delivers $1.2M In Red Tide Aid To Shellfishermen." Cape Cod Chronicle 22 Sep 2009, Print.

The Occurrence of Photosynthesis Within Chloroplast Cells A leaf’s structure contains many surface layers, but the most important feature of a leaf for a chloroplast to be present in is the upper and lower epidermis. This is a very thin, transparent layer of cells that forbids the secretion of water loss through evaporation. Between these multi-layered shields are where the mesophyll is located, which the majority of a plant consists of chloroplast cell (Biological Concepts). Chlorplasts are what you could consider the core ingredient for the process of photosynthesis to occur. It has a double-layered membrane; outer and inner with an intermembrane in the middle of both (Krough 2007). Within the chloroplast cells are a jumble of membranes called the thylakoids, which in fact, are a very active ingredient in photosynthesis as well. Thylakoids are then structurally stacked on top of each other to make what is called the granna. These stacks are sustained in a liquid called stroma, which is also used for food storage in the plant itself (Biological Concepts). So, knowing how a chloroplast cell is constructed, we can then move onto the actual steps of how photosynthesis occurs in these cells. A key essential of photosynthesis within a plant is light reaction which captures visible light to create oxygen gas for the plants to feed off of (Krough 2007), while the plant gives off carbon dioxide (what photosynthesis’s main job is to do). So when light is captured into the chloroplast, a thylakoid’s membrane absorbs energy to create the pigments of a plants coloring. There are two types of pigments within a plant: chlorophyll (greens and blues) and carotenoids (yellows and reds) (Biological Concepts). This pigment indicates the visible light available, which usually increases the energy of the plants cycles. Chloroplasts have a chlorophyll pigment majority of the time, which indicates it’s green. When not given sunlight (light reactions), carbon dioxide is not given off within a plant and not taking in oxygen gas for it to survive. So, chloroplasts are key element in the process of photosynthesis for it is a continuous cycle. · Biological Concepts:Biology 101 Labratory Workbook. Photosynthesis:Using Light to Make Food. Department of Biology Virginia Commonwealth University. 4th ed. p. 51-62. [cited 24 September 2009]. · Krogh, David. 2007. A Brief Guide to Biology with Physiology. Upper Saddle River (NJ): Personal Education, Inc. The Great World's Gift:Photosynthesis. p. 122-133. [cited 24 September 2009].

• Clinuvel Photoprotection [Interent]. [cited 24 September 2009]. Avaliable at: http://photoprotection.clinuvel.com/custom/uploads/LUV_fig4_chloroplast_v(1).gif
  
  
  
  

-Devin Huntt (hunttdc) -September 24,2009


· Bacteria – bacteria (singular: bacterium) are among the oldest living things on earth. They are microscopic single celled organisms that can multiply every 20 minutes. This cell is very simple in design. All matter in the cell floats freely inside the cell walls. Bacteria, a type of prokaryote, are cells that have no nucleus. A prokaryote is a cell whose DNA is not contained in the nucleus (Krogh 336). Bacteria are credited with many bad diseases, but can also be used for good. Bacteria break down the tissues of dead organisms and convert them into Nitrogen. This is known as decomposition. Plants then can convert this Nitrogen into protein to sustain life until the plant dies and the cycle starts all over again. Bacteria can also cause diseases in animals in two different ways. Some types of bacteria attack the body’s cells and some bacteria create toxins that are poisonous to the animal by producing harmful chemicals. Humans come in contact with dangerous bacteria every day. Bacteria enter the body in various ways. It may be in foods or fluids that people eat, they could enter the body by a puncture wound like tetanus, or air born bacteria may enter the lungs through the breathing process like pneumonia. Bacteria have an amazing ability to survive in an abundance of different ecosystems from hot springs to snow and ice to a salty ocean or high up in the atmosphere. There account for more living species than any other living thing.


· (“Bacteria”).



Sources
Beyond Books, Apex Learning Inc.. Bacteria: The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly. 30 July 2007.
3 Sept. 2009 <http://www.beyondbooks.com/lif72/2b.asp>.

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  Krogh, David. A brief guide to Biology with physiology. Upper saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. 2007.
  
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  • Protozoa
    
    
    
    
  • Source:http://www.amnh.org/nationalcenter/infection/01_mic/01_mic.html